A Critical Review Of Higher Education In India With Reference To TQM Measurement

In this research paper an attempt is made to assess the quality of higher education with the help of Total Quality Management ‘TQM’ parameters. The empirical study covers the most important groups of the stakeholders relevant with the higher education, i.e. the administrative staff, the faculty members and the students.
The outcomes of the research highlight that;
A.    The present level of the quality in the study area is at 3.19 levels out of 5 points scale of benchmarking for TQM.
B.    The  priorities of actions to be attended as immediate action are as given below;
Priorities        Areas
 I         Effective Training
II         Research / Publication output
III         Promotion of Research
IV        Students Activities, Top Management commitment and Implementation, Stakeholder Relationship and 22 other immediate action areas are to be attended as immediate action for improving the quality of higher education.
The authors also suggested policy measures to be taken for improving the quality of higher education.

1.    Higher Education in India: India could feel proud of being one of the pioneers in higher education. Nalanda University which had its hay days from 3rd century to 12th century AD was one of the biggest universities in early history, with over 10000 scholars drawn from all over the world, particularly from China and South & East Asia. Besides Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain and Vikramshila were the other ancient Indian universities. Formal beginning of university system in the modern sense started in 1857 in India with the launching of three presidency universities in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. India had a check-guard growth in higher education since 1857. For the next 30 years, no university was established in India. Only in 1887 the fourth university, viz, the University of Allahabad was established. On the recommendation of India University Commission (1902), India University Act (1904) envisaged the establishment of teaching universities. In 1953, an interim UGC was established The UGC Act.(1956) made UGC as a statutory body specifying its role, functions and organizational structure. For assessment and accreditation of Universities and colleges, NAAC was established in 1994. There has been phenomenal progress in the number of Universities and the number of colleges and other higher education institutions during the post independent period. Although the Indian Higher Education Structure can be traced back to Nalanda and Takshashila institutions, the foundation for modern education was laid by the Britishers. They set up network of schools to impart western education in English medium" (Perkin, 2006). The objective of the system of education conceived by the British Government for Indian was to produce a class of intermediaries between the ruler and the ruled.




Thus the main aim in starting of the schools for children's as well as the institution of higher learning in the 18th century was to propagate Christianity, to have competent scholars in the Muslim and Hindu Law, and to train the British civilians in India languages, India law, and Indian history". Out of ignorance about the great tradition of learning and education in Indian, Macaulay planted a system of education, which had its roots not in India but elsewhere. It was to this that MK Gandhi referred to when talking about the education in an independent India, at Chatham House, London on October 20, 1931, he said:

“I say without fear of my figures being challenged successfully, that today India is more illiterate than it was fifty or a hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because the British administrators, when they came to India instead of taking as they were, began to root them out. They scratched the soil and began to look at the root, and left the root like that, and the beautiful free perished.”

BR Ambedkar raised the slogan “Educate, Organize and Agitate”, giving first position and priority to education.

Between 2000 and 2006, 26 private-sponsored institutions got the deemed university status. Since education is on the concurrent list and the State government can themselves establish private universities through legislation in the state legislature by early 2005, seven private universities were set up in different states and were also recognized by UGC.
Attached by the advantages of the above, a newly constituted state Chhattisgarh in central India set up of 97 universities with all India jurisdictions in the year 2002. These had neither established proper structure of functions or structure-function relations. This was struck down by the Supreme Court in February 2005 leaving the fate of nearly fifty thousand students registered in these universities astray; the future of those who acquired degrees from these 'so called' universities remains uncertain. The Chhattisgarh case is an example towards a caution to the regulatory system as the gaps that exist in these regulatory bodies and its impact on the system.

2.    Pathetic Condition of Higher Education in India: Today with more than 100 crore population we have around 400 universities including deemed to be universities, whereas Japan with its 12.7 crore population has 684 universities; USA with 27.6 crore population has 2364 universities; and Germany with 8.2 crore population has 330 universities. A big gap is quite evident. To come close to Japan and USA roughly 6000 to9000 universities are required to be established in India. (Kale 2006). The enrolment in higher education again shows a visible big gap between India and advanced countries. Percentage of enrolment of students in Canada is 88% Australia 79.8% USA 80.9% and U.K. is 52%. The countries like Thailand, Brazil and Indonesia with 19, 12 and 11 percent enrolment respectively show a big difference with India's enrolment i.e. only six percent. In terms of GDP the percentage of allocation of funds for higher education in India has constantly decreased from one percent in 1971 to o.4% in 2001. Whereas the position of  USA (6.5%), France (5.8%), Germany (4.6%) Thailand (5 %)  and even Kenya (6.2 %) is much better and an eye opener (Pillai2006).

If we are to achieve a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 15 % and above by 2015, we need to substantially increase the number of higher education institutions in our country. While this expansion will have to be achieved in part through increased public spending on higher education, it will also require diversifying the sources of financing to encourage private participation, philanthropic contributions and industry linkages. We need to address this issue very seriously. There is a small number of quality education centers. Only a few of the best universities have some excellent departments and centers, and there are a small number of outstanding undergraduate colleges. At present, the internationally reputed institutions in India are mainly limited to the India Institutes of Technology (IITs), the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) and a few others such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Indian Institutes of Science (IISc), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) etc. These institutions, taken on a collective basis, enroll even below one per cent of the student population.

It is noticeable that all the high quality educational institutions are located either in metros or in urban areas. There is a need to expand and establish these institutions in semi-urban, rural and unreached areas, including tribal areas.

The sad fact is that a large number of institutions of higher education do not come anywhere near the standards expected of them. Even the university Grants Commission has found that about 50 per cent of the institutions for higher education already functioning are not eligible for financial support from it, because of their basic inadequacies in infrastructure, qualification of teachers, record in research etc. The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) has been able to assess the functioning of only a small number of existing colleges and  universities but has found that some of them are in position to provide quality education. (Shehrawat 2009).

3.    Total Quality Management:Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management philosophy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. Total quality provides an umbrella under which all employees and concerned individuals can strive and create a satisfaction of service, achievements and output in the context of end users. In other words, Total Quality Management is a people-focused management system that aims at continual increase in satisfaction at all levels.

Besides, a critical review, the present paper is based on empirical work primarily focusing on various practices being used in the institutions of higher education for measuring Total Quality Management.

According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), TQM is a management approach for an organization centered on quality, based on participation of all its members and aiming at long term success through client's satisfaction, and benefits to all members of organization and to society.

4.    Measurement of TQM in Higher Education: Measurement of Total Quality Management (TQM) in institutions of higher education is very critical process. There are several criteria and key aspects or the measurements available in the higher education system.
To measure and maintain the level of quality of higher education, University Grant Commission (UGC) has setup the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), whose purpose is to measure, maintain and promote TQM in Institutions of higher education. At present the NAAC is physically inspecting the institutions of higher education i.e. universities and colleges. The NAAC has seven specific parameters as measurements namely; Curriculum Aspects’, Teaching Learning and Evaluation’, Infrastructure and Learning Resources’, Student Support and Progression’, governance and leadership', and Innovative Practices’. These seven parameters are also having some specific key aspects for measuring the Institutions of higher education.

B. Narayan, (1998) has suggested six principles of TQM viz. top management commitment and implementation’, attitude change from top to bottom’, continuous improvement’, strengthened supervision’, effective training’ and recognition of performance’.  Shakil Ahmad, (1999) has highlighted measurements, on the basis of Human Recourse Management (HRD). For the purpose of empirical research the questionnaire is prepared having 64 parameters, covering TQM measurements suggested by NAAC, Dr. B. Narayan and Dr. Shakil Ahemad.

5.    Empirical Research based on TQM Measurements in Higher Education: There are 64 parameters/ measurements including parameters used by NAAC describing to find out the present level of quality in study area. For assessment of level of TQM in the Institutions of higher education “5-1” point scale is devised. Thus, (1) ‘excellent’ (above 80 per cent credits) is  given weight-age  as 5 points;  (2) ‘very good’ (61 to 80 per cent) is given weight-age as 4  points; (3)‘good’ (41 up to 60 per cent) is given weight-age  as 3 points; (4) ‘fair’ (21 to 40 per cent) is given weight-age  as 2 points and (5)‘poor’ for (20 per cent or below) is given weight-age  at 1 point. The above five point scale is used for each question in the questionnaire. The data collected from three groups i.e. the administrative, the faculty and the student groups of 300 respondents are analyzed in two ways i.e. Percentage analysis and Weighted Average analysis.
The overall percentage analysis is as given below;
Overall Level of Quality in the study area
Over all
Level of TQM    Respondents Responses   
Total

    Poor    Fair    Good    Very good    Excellent   
Total Responses    2220
    3096    5931
    4900
    3053
    19200
Percentage    11.56%    16.12%    30.89%    25.52%    15.90%    100%

The above analysis clearly indicates that while the maximum percentage of respondents perceive the level of TQM as ‘Good’ the remaining respondents are not equally distributed in higher and lower sides of “Good”, i.e. 'Very Good /Excellent' categories and 'Poor /Fair' categories respectively. The responses for higher level are more in number than the response on the lower side. The basic objective of percentage analysis is to facilitate identification of areas, i.e. the areas represented by questions which are rated either very high (to be attended to later) or the areas represented by questions which are rated very low (needing immediate action) for quality improvement. The percentage analysis has been done Criteria-wise, Section-wise, and Group-wise / Questions-wise. The priorities of action for percentage analysis are fixed, based on the reducing percentage of column of “Poor” rating. This provides sequence of areas for analysis to arrive at immediate action. The Weighted Average analysis helps in removing the dilemma about the priorities of the areas which were appearing initially in the lists of IAA, LAA and RAA. To find out the exact present level of quality in the study area, the weighted average analysis has been done as given below;
      W       =             1         2           3           4         5
________________________
P    F    G    VG    E
(Where W stands for – weight-age, where P stands for - Poor, Where F stands for – Fair,
G stands for – Good, V G stands for – Very Good, and E stands for – Excellent)
    
             W      =     P x W + F x W + G x W + VG x W + E x W
___________________________________
Total Frequency

           =      2220 x 1 + 3096 x 2 + 5931 x 3 + 4900 x 4 + 3053 x 5
   _________________________________________
19200

   =     2220 + 6192 + 17793 + 19600 + 15265
_________________________________
19200

          =     Answered     3.189 Weight-age Average say – 3.19

It is clear that the present level of quality in over all study area is found at 3.19 points out of 5 points as benchmarking level of TQM for the study. It means that the quality status of the study area is found more than ‘good’ at 3.19 level points. It shows that 1.81 points level quality is required to achieve the goal of TQM.

Of 64 areas (are the parameters of assessment of TQM existing level) total 28 areas emerged as Immediate Action Area (IAA) based on the responses received from all the three groups i.e. the administrative, the faculty and the student groups. As for as ‘IAA’ are concerned 19 areas out of 28 IAAs, have been found on the basis of high poor ratings given by the administrative group. In case of Later Action Areas out of total 28 LAAs, 17 areas emerged on the basis of higher ratings of respondents from administrative group. 6 areas emerged on the basis of high poor ratings of respondents from faculty group as IAA. The faculty groups gave poor ratings at such parameters which are concerned with the management in the higher education system. And the areas as LAA emerged on the basis of higher ratings of respondents from faculty group are also six. The 4 areas emerged on the basis of high poor ratings of respondents from student group as IAA. The student groups gave poor ratings at such parameters which are also concerned with the management in the higher education system.    There are 5 areas emerged as LAA on the basis of higher ratings of respondents from student group. There are 13 areas which emerged neither as IAA i.e. Fist priority, nor as LAA i.e. low priority have been clubbed into the Routine Action Areas (RAAs) i.e. priority of continuous action.

The total number of areas of IAAs, LAAs, and RAAs are 69 while total areas used as per parameters of questionnaire are only 64. The difference of five areas is appearing on the basis of high ratings given by the respondent in both side i.e. ‘poor’ and ‘excellent’ columns. These five areas emerged as IAA and LAA are also due to ratings received from administrative group, viz. (1) Research / Publication out put, (2) Promotion of Research, (3) Students Activities, (4) Top Management commitment and Implement, (5) Stakeholder Relationship. The responses received from administrative group have been very frank, appearing significantly with higher percentage both in ‘poor’ as well as ‘excellent’ columns. This shows that respondents from administrative group did not hesitate to give high / low rating, if they thought that to be correct.

To conclude and find out the Most Important Areas (MIA) from overall responses, the weight-ages given to IAA is 3 points, RAA is 2 points and LAA is 1 point. In this process the Most Important Areas (MIA) emerged where seriously immediate appropriate action is to be taken on the basis of priorities. The priorities of attending areas within IAA, RAA, and LAA, revealed following sequenced hierarchy.

        Priorities        Parameters / Areas
    I        Effective Training
    II        Research / Publication out put
    III    1    Promotion of Research
2    Students Activities
3    Top Management commitment and Implement
4    Stakeholder Relationship
(The above six parameters / areas found as Most Important Areas ('MIA')
    IV    Remaining 22 areas of IAA out of 28 areas in IAA
    V    All 13 areas in RAA
    IV    Remaining 23 areas of LAA out of 28 areas in LAA

In fact the areas appearing from priority I to IV as given above are the Most Important Areas. The action should be taken in all 64 areas in descending order as given above in priorities to improve the quality of education.

Findings and Recommendations:
1.    It is found that total quality management 'TQM' in existing institutions is in the ratio of 71: 29 in terms of good and not good. And the present exact level of the quality is found at 3.19 points out of 5 points scale of the benchmarking for TQM in the study area. In general the appropriate action should be taken in all IAAs needing immediate action, RAAs needing routine action and LAAs needing low action to improve and maintain the quality.

2.    Effective Training: It is found that the area of effective training has been rated very poor thus, this area to be taken up on Ist priority. During the study it is found that there is no provision for training to the staff, the officers and the teachers in the institutions of higher education. Training for the job is essentially in the many organizations. From Small-Scale-Industries (SSI) to multinational-companies all provides jobs to their employees and officers after giving appropriate training. From a lower scale 'Patwari' to the officers in revenue department, from a police constable to Superintendent of Police (SP) in the police department etc. all are assigned their jobs after proper training. Therefore the training is essential requirement in the higher education system also. It is strongly recommended that 'Pre-Service Training Course' (PSTC) and 'In-Service Training Course' (ISTC)' should be compulsorily given to the employees, the officers, the teachers and other authorities involved in higher education system.
2.1    Pre-Service-Training-Course (PSTC): A three to six months 'Pre-Service-Training-Course' (PSTC) can be developed for all supporting staff and the officers of the higher education institutions. After selection of the staff and the officers should be sent to join that PSTC and effectively completed the course than the appropriate jobs should be assigned. PSTC can be provided to all staff and officers for all activities like, working procedures, implementation of rules and regulations, noting and drafting, holding of examinations and different meetings etc.  There is no provision of training to the teachers also. There should be a 'Teaching-Learning and Evaluation-Courses' (TLEC) for teachers in the institutions of higher education. Some limited refresher and orientation courses in limited 'Academic Staff Colleges' (ASC) have seen for teachers in higher education system.
To improve the quality of teaching learning process, a two to four months 'Pre-Service Teaching-Learning and Evaluation-Course' (PSTLEC) should be developed and implemented in higher education system.
2.2    In-Service-Training-Course (ISTC):  In-service-training-course (ISTC) is very important for higher education in present scenario. At present in-service training course is not found especially for the staff and the officers in the institutions of higher education. A rigorous three to four weeks in-service training course to the staff and the officers of the institutions of higher education is to be provided. This will help to adopt the latest techniques and changes which are emerging in competitive higher education environment.
Very limited refresher and orientation (one or two) courses are attended by the lecturer level, optionally due to the interest of their promotion under 'Carrier Advancement Scheme' (CAS) of the UGC. A regular three to four weeks in-service training i.e. 'In-Service-Teaching-Learning-Course' (ISTLC) including compulsion of one refresher and one orientation courses for upgrading the latest knowledge for teaching-learning and evaluation should be given to lecturer and reader level in a year.
3.    Research and Publication Out-put: Research and publication out-put area is also found as poor during the study needing immediate action on top II priority. During the research it is found that the many of the teachers in the rural areas have not written even a single article in place of research papers or books. Research work and publication of the research papers and books are generating and updating the knowledge of the teachers as well as their students. It is recommended that at least one article in a month, one research paper quarterly in reputed national journal in a year and one book in two years duration should be positively published by a teacher to improve the research and publication out put. All facilities including financial assistance related to promotion of research to the teachers and research scholar must be provided by the institutions of higher education. There are the provisions in ordinance No. 18 i.e. for Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) of the state universities in M.P. that a recognized supervisor for Ph.D. work has to publish research papers in standard national journals. Failing which the recognition as supervisor for new Ph.D. candidate is not allowed. These provisions should be strictly followed by the institutions and the universities. And at least two research papers by the Ph.D. scholar based on their research work during research should be presented in the national seminars and published in standard national journals so that the research / publication out put can be increased.
4.    Promotion of Research:  Promotion of research area is also found poor in the study needing action on top III rd priority. Ordinance for Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) of the state universities is allowed to register maximum six candidates as main supervisor and three candidates as co supervisor with a recognized supervisor for Ph.D. research work. It means that at a time the recognized supervisor can register maximum nine candidates for Ph.D. research work. To fulfill the all nine seats for this important research work of Ph.D. it depends on the choice of the supervisor. It is recommended that to improve the promotion of research area, at least ten in place of six and five in place of three i.e. the total fifteen candidates should be allowed to register compulsorily for Ph.D. with a recognized supervisor. The appropriate amendments should be made in the ordinance 18. The 'Research Based Foundation Course of Research Methodology' (RBFCRM) may be started from under graduate and post graduate level to improve the promotion of research.
6.    Students Activities: It is observed in the study that the activities of the students in the institutions of higher education are reduced from time to time. This parameter is also emerged to take action on top III priority. To create positive activities from the students, it is proposed that internal, national and international seminars, symposia and workshops should be organized by the institutions of higher education. The field works and field visits in a month regularly be provided by the institutions to their students. Management should provide all facilities as required by the students.
7.    Top Management Commitment and Implementation: Top management commitment and implementation is a one of the area which is found as very poor in the institutions of higher education. This area also needs immediate action to improve the quality and is found on top III priority. It is interesting to note that top management commitment and implementation area has emerged with high poor ratings given by the administrative group. The administration includes top management and is responsible for poor commitment and implementation; it is acceptance of their own weakness. During the research it is found that for establishment of an institution or a college of higher education in Madhya Pradesh; the permission from the state government is a compulsory requirement, may be from the higher education department or other technical department as per the case in view. After the permission from govt. the concern university physically conducts the inspection through its inspection committee to ensure that the infrastructures, human and financial recourses etc. are adequately available. On the basis of the report of the inspection committee, the university gives temporary affiliation to such institution or the college with the conditions to fulfill all requirements, within the prescribed time period. It is normally observed that the management of such colleges do not complete the requirements and continue as such. It is strongly recommended that the affiliation for further period and for other courses should not be given to such colleges, and  strict action against the management of such colleges should be taken by state government and the university.
8.    Stakeholder Relationship: Stakeholder relationship is found as one of the most important area 'MIA' to take action on III priority. It evidently shows that the stakeholder relationship like; relationship of the students and the teacher, relationship of the students and the staff, relationship of the students and the officers, relationship of the students and the society, relationship of the staff and the parents, relationship of the management and the parents, etc. are continually on decline. It is recommended that a well cultured atmosphere in the campus of the institutions should be developed and maintained by the management.
9.    Policy Implications: Form the above areas emerged in IAA, RAA and LAAs, the following policy     measures may be considered for improving the quality of higher education:
i.    A well-planned and structured interaction between centers of academic excellence (such as IITS, IIMs, National Laboratories, and Centers of Advanced studies) and other universities, institutions can contribute towards the improvement of quality of higher education.
ii.    While restructuring the syllabi and courses, efforts should be made to develop an optimal combination of acquisition of theoretical and practical skills. The courses should be so designed that critical reading and interpretation of classics, practical field work wherever relevant, and application of readings and other skills are made an integral part of learning and teaching schedules.
iii.    Quality of higher education can improve considerably through an extensive and optimal use of audio-visual technologies and internet networks. The courses should be so designed that the use of these technologies is made an integral part of the teaching programmes and classroom activities to supplement and strengthen the learning facilities for students.
iv.    In restructuring of syllabi, all stakeholders such as students, teachers and users of service are effectively involved. However, teachers in particular, should be given considerable flexibility within the norms and benchmarks formulated by the stakeholders.
v.    Examination reforms, gradually shifting from the terminal annual and semester examinations to regular and continuous process of assessment of student's performance of learning and teaching, should be implemented in fixed time frame.
vi.    Quality of higher education can also improve by inducting quality-oriented objectivity in merit promotions under the career advancement schemes. Specification of weight ages for teaching, research publication and research supervision would help in making the schemes more transparent and credible.
vii.    Re-organization and integration of various faculties, particularly social science faculties, around interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary courses can also help in bringing quality improvement in teaching, research and consultancy. UGC, ICSSR and other research funding organizations should encourage inter-disciplinary/multi-disciplinary/seminars/conferences research projects. These bodies should allocate at least 50 percent of their research funds for inter-disciplinary activities. UGC should also take initiatives to open Centers/Schools aiming to promote multi-disciplinary teaching and research. It may be recommended that appointment of teachers for teaching and research in more than one discipline by amending qualifications for recruitment should also be started on experimental basis. The syllabi of National Eligibility Test (NET) should be restructured to incorporate substantial contents of interdisciplinary bearing and application.

viii.    Basic parameters of academic merit need to be developed for bringing transparency and credibility in the process of granting promotions under the CAS. There should be no disparity between Readers and Professors appointed through open selections and those promoted on the basis of academic merit under the CAS.
ix.    Effective-Cost-Management (ECM): A critical review of activities of higher educational institutions as well as their budgets is the only means/way to phase out obsolete activities and for creating the necessary space for new activities. The shifting from traditional incremental budgeting to performance-based budgets is all the more necessary to arrest erosion in quality of higher education in the light of resource crunch.
9.    Policy Interventions: On the basis of areas emerged in IAA, RAA and LAAs, it     is clear that if we want to improve the quality of higher education, than the serious and committed actions should be taken on all levels of the all parameters. Some specific policy interventions are suggested here:
1.    It is submitted that the educational qualifications of all stakeholders in higher education system, especially for the staff, the officers and the teachers of higher education should be enforced in view of the changing needs of present era of globalization, privatization and liberalization. Research Based Teaching Course (RBTC) like engineering and medical education should be started from higher secondary education and  Pre Teaching Test (PTT) like PET and PMT, should be conducted to select the students who want to be the teacher in higher education and produce them as knowledgeable quality teachers in traditional higher education.
2.    Selection procedure of the staff, the officers and the teachers should be based on latest requirements. It is found that the selection of the teachers (lecturers) and the senior level officers for higher education system are being selected by the Public Service Commission (PSC) in Madhya Pradesh. A rigorous pre written test as well as main written test should be conducted by the PSC especially for teachers on the basis of latest research based teaching quality to enhance the quality of higher education.

3.    The service conduct rules should be intervened to improve the skills and efficiency of the staff, the officers and the teachers in higher education. After selection of the employee in the higher education, at least three to six month induction programmes should be enforced to know and learn about all activities, rules and regulations, procedures of work etc. in the institutions of higher education.  The conformation of probation period of a new employee should be based on their actual performance and a Departmental-Conformation-Examination (DCE) should be held before conformation. The annual increments (may be one or more than one), promotions etc. should also be based on actual performance and a Departmental-Performance-Test (DPE) should be held other than the criteria prescribed for increments and promotions.
4.      During the research it is found that the quality of higher education is also depends on the quality of primary education as well as secondary education. It is suggested that the well experienced retired teachers from the higher education should be engaged in the primary and secondary education to improve the quality of students for higher education including primary and secondary education.

The study thus concludes that the topmost point for TQM in higher education is 'Training' followed by 'research based publications'. The other priority areas of; promotion of research, students activities, top management commitment and implementation, and stakeholder relationship’ should be taken care of  on top priority to improve the level of quality in the institutions of higher education. The policy implications and policy interventions are necessary to improve TQM level in institutions of higher education.

10.    References:
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2.    Gautam Satya ,P. (2005) Ibid.P-2.
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5.    Magotra, Ritu (2007). Ibid. P-9
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